Under-nutrition and associated factors among children on ART in Southern Ethiopia: a facility-based cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition is very common in HIV-infected individuals. Even though data from different settings are necessary to tackle it, pieces of evidence are limited especially in the case of the nutritional status of HIV-infected children. Hence, this study aims to assess the nutritional status and associated factors among children on antiretroviral therapy. METHODS: An institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 383 HIV-positive children in Southern Ethiopia. Data were collected using an interviewer-administered questionnaire and anthropometry measurement. Data were coded and entered into Epi-Data Version 3.1 and analyzed using SPSS Version 25. Bi-variable and multi-variable binary logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with nutritional status and variables with p-values <0.05 in multi-variable logistic regression were considered as statistically significant. RESULTS: The prevalence of wasting among HIV-positive children in Southern Ethiopiaselected Hospitals was 36.3% (95% CI, 31.6-41.0) while stunting on the same study population was 5.5% (95% CI, 3.4-7.8). Rural residence, lack of maternal education, low CD4 counts (< 500), using an unprotected water source, having a non-biological mother and recurrent oral lesion were significantly associated with wasting. Furthermore, history of hospital admission, recurrent oral lesion, low CD4 counts (< 500), advanced WHO clinical stage were statically associated with stunting with p-value < 0.05. CONCLUSION: This study found that the prevalence of under-nutrition among HIV-positive children in Ethiopia was significantly high. Therefore, timely identification and monitoring of nutritional problems should be necessary to enhance the effectiveness of ART treatment and to prevent further related complications.

Does HIV infection affect growth and puberty of Cameroonian children?

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to describe growth and pubertal development of adolescents with HIV infection under highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in Cameroon. DESIGN: Through an observational study, we included 74 adolescents aged 9-17 years who were taking HAART and had attended two care units in Cameroon for at least 6 months. Weight and height were measured and transferred to 2007 WHO curves for 5- to 19-year-olds. Stunting was defined by a height for age z-score less than -2 standard deviations. Wasting was defined by a BMI z-score for age less than -2 standard deviations. Pubertal development was assessed using Tanner stages. We looked into the association between HIV infection characteristics, HAART regimen, and growth/puberty abnormalities with multivariate analysis. The Mann-Whitney U-test was used to compare median values with a p-value ≤0.05. RESULTS: The median age was 13 (11.2-14.7) years. Stunting affected 44% of the children. Wasting affected 9.7% of the adolescents. The age at onset of puberty was in the normal range in both boys and girls. Adolescents aged 12-14 years (OR 3.4 [95% CI, 1.3-8.8], p=0.012) with a past history of opportunistic infection and taking HAART with protease inhibitors were more likely to have stunting. CONCLUSION: In the Cameroonian setting, growth was mainly affected by stunting, but pubertal development was normal in all patients. This may reflect the benefits of HAART in children with HIV infection.

Magnitude of underweight, wasting and stunting among HIV positive children in East Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition on the background of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection is a complex medical condition that carries significant morbidity and mortality for affected children, with greater mortality from SAM (Severe Acute Malnutrition) among HIV-positive children than their HIV-negative peers. HIV-induced immune impairment heightened risk of opportunistic infection and can worsen nutritional status of children. HIV infection often leads to nutritional deficiencies through decreased food intake, mal-absorption and increased utilization and excretion of nutrients, which in turn can hasten death. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess the magnitude of underweight, wasting and stunting among HIV positive children in East Africa. METHODS: The authors systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed studies that assessed the prevalence of underweight, wasting and stunting among HIV positive children in East Africa from PubMed, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and Gray Literatures using PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) guideline. The last search date was December 30/2019. The data was extracted in excel sheet considering country, study design, year of publication, prevalence reported. Then the authors transformed the data to STATA 14 for analysis. Heterogeneity across the studies was assessed by the Q and the I2 test. A weighted inverse variance random-effects model was used to estimate the magnitude of underweight, wasting and stunting. The subgroup analysis was done by country, year of publication, and study design. To examine publication bias, a funnel plot and Egger's regression test were used. RESULTS: For the analysis a total of 22 studies with 22074 patients were used. The pooled prevalence of under-weight, wasting, and stunting among HIV positive children in East Africa was found to be 41.63% (95%CI; 35.69-47.57; I2 = 98.7%; p<0.001), 24.65% (95%CI; 18.34-30.95; I2 = 99.2%; p<0.001), and 49.68% (95%CI; 42.59-56.77; I2 = 99.0%; p<0.001) respectively. The prevalence of under-weight among HIV positive children was found to be 49.67% in Ethiopia followed by 42.00 in Rwanda. It was high among cohort studies (44.87%). Based on the year of publication, the prevalence of under-weight among HIV positive children was found to be 40.88% from studies conducted from January 2008-December 2014, while it was 43.68% from studies conducted from 2015-2019. The prevalence of wasting among HIV positive children was found to be 29.7% in Tanzania followed by 24.94% in Ethiopia. Based on the study design, the prevalence of wasting among HIV positive children was found to be high in cohort studies (31.15%). The prevalence of stunting among HIV positive children was found to be 51.63% in Ethiopia, followed by 48.21% in Uganda. CONCLUSIONS: The results presented above provide evidence of a higher prevalence of under nutrition among HIV positive children in East Africa. Despite the country level variations of child under nutrition in East Africa, still it is high in all aspects compared to the studies from other parts of Africa. It is recommended that further systematic review and meta-analysis need to be conducted on magnitude of malnutrition among HIV positive children in Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole.

La infección por VIH como causa de envejecimiento acelerado y fragilidad / HIV infection as a cause of accelerated aging and frailty

La población con infección por VIH está envejeciendo debido al aumento de la supervivencia gracias al tratamiento antirretroviral y al aumento de casos nuevos en personas mayores de 50 años. A pesar de un buen control inmunovirológico tras el tratamiento, el VIH provoca por diferentes vías un estado de inflamación crónica con cambios en el sistema inmunológico similares a los que tienen lugar con el envejecimiento fisiológico dando como resultado el envejecimiento precoz del sistema inmune o inmunosenescencia. Esta inmunosenescencia tiene su manifestación clínica en un aumento de la prevalencia de comorbilidades asociadas a la edad no asociadas al VIH y en un aumento de la prevalencia de fragilidad a edades más tempranas que en la población general. El paciente con infección por VIH es biológicamente mayor de lo que su edad cronológica indica y presenta problemas propios de las personas mayores como la fragilidad que deben ser abordados (AU)

The HIV-infected population is aging due to the success of combination antiretroviral therapy, which prolongs survival, as well as the growing number of newly diagnosed cases in adults 50 years old and over. HIV-infected individuals suffer from an accelerated aging due to the persistent and chronic activation of the immune system that leads to immune exhaustion and accelerated immunosenescence, even when on optimal immuno-virological control treatment. The clinical expression of the immunosenescence state is an increased prevalence of aging-related non-HIV associated comorbidities and a rising prevalence of frailty occurring earlier than in the general population. Thus, HIV-infected patients are biologically older than their chronological age, and they suffer from aging-related problems, such as frailty, which should be assessed (AU)

Indicadores nutricionais em pacientes portadores de HIV/SIDA / Nutritional indicators in patients with HIV/AIDS: ambulatorial and hospital reality

Objetivos: Avaliar e comparar o estado clínico-nutricional de pacientes infectados pelo HIV/SIDA internados e atendidos no ambulatório de nutrição do Hospital das Clínicas de Pernambuco (HC/UFPE). Métodos: Estudo transversal observacional realizado no HC/UFPE, com pacientes HIV/SIDA positivo internados na enfermaria e pacientes atendidos no ambulatório de nutrição, de ambos os sexos, com faixa etária entre 20 e 60 anos. Foram avaliadas e comparadas medidas antropométricas (peso, prega cutânea triciptal, circunferência do braço e da cintura, relação cintura/estatura, IMC, circunferência muscular do braço e percentual de perda de peso) e dosagens bioquímicas (albumina, hemoglobina, hematócrito, linfócitos totais e perfil lipídico) entre os dois grupos. Resultados: Os pacientes internos apresentaram uma baixa adesão a Terapia antirretroviral, elevado percentual de desnutrição, perda de peso e depleção tanto do compartimento muscular quanto adiposo, anemia e hipoalbuminemia. Nos externos, verificou-se boa adesão a TARV, excesso de peso, risco elevado para complicações metabólicas representados pela elevada Circunferência da Cintura e pela razão cintura/ estatura, hipercolesterolemia, glicose alterada, HDL-C baixo e elevado LDL-C. Conclusão: A síndrome lipodistrófica prevaleceu nos externos e a não adesão a TARV, encontrada nos internos, reporta uma maior frequência da síndrome consumptiva

Objetive: To evaluate and compare the clinical and nutritional status of HIV / AIDS patients hospitalized and attended at the nutrition clinic of Hospital das Clínicas de Pernambuco (HC / UFPE). Methods: Evaluated 86 pacients, 60.5% (52) inpatients and 39.5% (34) outpatients of both sexes, HIV/AIDS in the HC/UFPE, from March to August 2008, to evaluate and compare the clinical and nutritional status through anthropometric measurements and biochemical values. Results: The inpatients had a low adherence to antiretrovital therapy (ART) (22%), high percentage of malnutrition (46.2%), weight loss (78.8%) and depletion of both the muscular compartment (92.4 %) and fat (82.7%), anemia (92.3%) and hypoalbuminemia (69.2%). However in outpatients, there was good adherence to ART (97%), overweight (50%), high risk for metabolic complications represented by waist circumference (WC) (47.1%) as the reason circle waist/height (CC/Alt) (70.6%), hypercholesterolemia (70.6%), altered glucose (38.2%), low HDL-C (58%) and high LDL-C (47.1 %).Conclusion: It follows then that the syndrome Lipodystrophy prevailed in the outpatients and non-adherence to ART, found in the inpatients, reports to the beginning of the HIV/AIDS, which high frequency of the syndrome consuptiva

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High Viremia and Wasting Before Antiretroviral Therapy Are Associated With Pneumonia in Early-Treated HIV-Infected Kenyan Infants.

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children are particularly susceptible to acute respiratory infections (ARIs). We determined incidence and cofactors for ARIs in HIV-infected infants receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART). METHODS: Human immunodeficiency virus-infected infants initiated ART at ≤12 months of age and were observed monthly for 2 years in Nairobi. Acute respiratory infection rates and cofactors were determined using Andersen-Gill models, allowing for multiple events per infant. RESULTS: Among 111 HIV-infected infants, median age at ART initiation was 4.5 months. Pre-ART median CD4% was 19%, and 29% had wasting. During 24-months follow-up while on ART, upper respiratory infection (URI) and pneumonia rates were 122.6 and 34.7 per 100 person-years (py), respectively. Infants with higher pre-ART viral load (VL) (plasma HIV ribonucleic acid [RNA] ≥7 log10 copies/mL) had 4.12-fold increased risk of pneumonia (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.17-7.80), and infants with wasting (weight-for-height z-score < -2) had 2.87-fold increased risk (95% CI, 1.56-5.28). Infants with both high pre-ART VL and wasting had a higher pneumonia rate (166.8 per 100 py) than those with only 1 of these risk factors (44.4 per 100 py) or neither (17.0 per 100 py). Infants with exposure to wood fuel had significantly higher risk of URI (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.82; 95% CI, 1.44-2.28) and pneumonia (HR = 3.31; 95% CI, 1.76-6.21). CONCLUSIONS: In early ART-treated HIV-infected infants, higher HIV RNA and wasting before ART were independent risk factors for pneumonia. Wood fuel use was associated with URI and pneumonia. Additional data on air pollution and respiratory outcomes in HIV-infected children may help optimize interventions to improve their lung health.

Challenges of malnutrition care among HIV-infected children on antiretroviral treatment in Africa.

More than 90% of the estimated 3.2 million children with HIV worldwide, at the end of 2013, were living in sub-Saharan Africa. The management of these children was still difficult in 2014 despite the progress in access to antiretroviral drugs. A great number of HIV-infected children are not diagnosed at 6 weeks and start antiretroviral treatment late, at an advanced stage of HIV disease complicated by other comorbidities such as malnutrition. Malnutrition is a major problem in the sub-Saharan Africa global population; it is an additional burden for HIV-infected children because they do not respond as well as non-infected children to the usual nutritional care. HIV infection and malnutrition interact, creating a vicious circle. It is important to understand the relationship between these 2 conditions and the effect of antiretroviral treatment on this circle to taking them into account for an optimal management of pediatric HIV. An improved monitoring of growth during follow-up and the introduction of a nutritional support among HIV-infected children, especially at antiretroviral treatment initiation, are important factors that could improve response to antiretroviral treatment and optimize the management of pediatric HIV in resource-limited countries.

Tuberculosis: características epidemiológicas en un hospital tipo IV / Tuberculosis: epidemiological characteristics in a type IV hospital

La tuberculosis (TB) es un problema de salud pública. Analizar la epidemiologia de la tuberculosis en los últimos 10 años. Se diseñó un estudio de casos, descriptivo y analítico, observacional, transversal y retrospectivo en una muestra no probabilística, que incluye 100% de las historias de pacientes mayores de 14 años de edad, de cualquier sexo, con diagnóstico de TB en cualquiera de sus formas clínicas, atendidos en el Hospital General del Oeste, Dr. José Gregorio Hernández, de Caracas, durante el periodo comprendido entre enero de 2004 y diciembre 2013, divididos en dos grupos de 5 años consecutivos denominados A y B. Se analizaron 475 historias médicas, correspondientes a 241 pacientes del grupo A y 234 del B. La edad promedio del grupo total fue 38,97 ± 15,97 con un predominio del género masculino en 60.6%. La mayor parte de la muestra fueron personas que provienen de Caracas en ambos grupos. El estrato socioeconómico fue predominantemente IV de la clasificación de Graffar y representó el 41% en el grupo A y a 73,9% en el B con diferencia estadísticamente significativa. Se identificaron14, 1% y 19,7% de pacientes con enfermedad relacionada con el VIH en los Grupos A y B. Pocos sujetos tenían enfermedades debilitantes crónicas predisponentes y la más importante fue la desnutrición que duplicó la frecuencia en el grupo B (26,5%) vs (12%) en el A , estadísticamente significativa. La radiología de tórax fue el método más utilizado. En el Grupo A recibieron Prueba Terapéutica 52 pacientes mientras que en grupo B, 70. El grupo representó tuberculosis pulmonar en 71,78% para el grupo A y 68,37% para el B: el resto fue en diversas localizaciones extra pulmonares donde predominaron la pleura y los ganglios. Se cumplió la meta terapéutica en 77,1% de grupo A y 80.36% del grupo B y los restantes en ambos grupos correspondieron al abandono de tratamiento o fallecimiento. La desnutrición fue muy importante en el grupo de estudio reciente y el VIH se mantuvo...

Tuberculosis is a public health problem. To analyze the epidemiology of tuberculosis in the last 10 years. A case study, descriptive and analytical, observational, cross-sectional and retrospective in a non random sample, which includes 100% of the records of patients over 14 years of age, of any gender, diagnosed with TB in any one of its clinical forms, treated in the Hospital Dr. José Gregorio Hernández, Caracas, during the period between January 2004 and December 2013 divided in two groups of 4 consecutive years called A and B. 475 medical records were analyzed corresponding to 241 patients in group A and 234 in B. The average age of the total group was 38.97 ± 15.97 with a predominance of the male gender in 60.6%. The majority of the sample belonged to people coming from Caracas in both groups. Socioeconomic level classification Graffar IV was predominant and accounted for 41% in group A and 73.9% in group B with significant statistical difference. 14.1% and 19.7% of patients were identified with HIV-related in Groups A and B. Few patients had chronic debilitating diseases and malnutrition was the most important and it doubled its frequency in group B (26.5%) vs (12%) with a statistically significant difference. The chest x-ray was the most used method. In Group A, 52 patients received therapeutic test while in group B were 70. The group accounted for pulmonary tuberculosis in 71.78% in group A and 68.37% for the B: the rest were in various extrapulmonary sites where it dominated in pleura and ganglia. The therapeutic goal was fulfilled in 77, 1% of group A and 80, 36% in group B and the rest in both groups corresponded to treatment abandonment or death. Malnutrition was very important in the second study group and HIV remained with similar frequency in both groups

Undernutrition and anaemia among HAART-naïve HIV infected children in Ile-Ife, Nigeria: a case-controlled, hospital based study.

INTRODUCTION: Case control studies that assess the burden and factors associated with undernutrition and anaemia among HAART naïve HIV infected children in Nigeria is very sparse. This will help to formulate nutritional programs among these children. METHODS: Seventy HAART naive HIV infected children aged 18 months and above were as well as seventy age and sex matched HIV negative children were recruited from August 2007 to January 2009 at Paediatric Clinic of Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital Complex, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Their bio data, WHO clinical stage, anthropometric measurements, haematocrit, serum albumin and CD4 counts were taken with other parameters according to a study proforma. RESULTS: The prevalence of stunting, underweight and wasting among the HIV infected subjects were 48. 6%,58. 6% and 31. 4% respectively which as significantly higher than 28. 1%, 7. 1% and 28. 1% among the HIV negative controls. 20. 1% of the HIV infected children were marasmic compared to 2. 3% of the controls. Triple anthropometric failure was found in 7. 1% of the subjects as compared to none among the controls. Anaemia is significantly more prevalent among the subjects than the controls (70. 0% vs 31. 4%; p<0. 001). The prevalence of anaemia was higher in the HIV infected subjects with undernutrition. Low socioeconomic status, hypoalbuminemia and severe immunosuppression are significantly associated with higher undernutrition prevalence. CONCLUSION: Several years after availability of HAART, undernutrition and anaemia remain widely prevalent among newly presenting HAART naïve HIV infected Nigerian children. Nutritional supplementation and evaluation for anaemia still need close attention in the management of these children.

From wasting to obesity, changes in nutritional concerns in HIV/AIDS.

Optimal nutrition is an important part of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care; to support the immune system, limit HIV-associated complications as well as maintain better quality of life and survival. The presentation and nature of malnutrition in patients with HIV has changed dramatically over the past 30 years from predominantly a wasting syndrome to lipodystrophy and, now, frailty. Nevertheless, we continue to see all 3 presentations in patient care today. The pathogenesis of poor nutrition in HIV-infected patients depends on caloric intake, intestinal nutrient absorption/translocation, and resting energy expenditure, which are features seen in all chronic diseases.

[Prevalence of Encephalitozoon intestinalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in HIV positive patients to Maracaibo, Venezuela]. / Prevalencia de Encephalitozoon intestinalis y Enterocytozoon bieneusi en pacientes VIH positivos de Maracaibo, Venezuela.

Microsporidioses are considered emerging and opportunistic infections in immunocompromised individuals worldwide. The purpose of this study was to identify the species of intestinal microsporidia in patients with HIV-AIDS from the Servicio Autónomo Hospital Universitario de Maracaibo, Venezuela (SAHUM). Fecal samples were collected from 50 patients with confirmed diagnosis of HIV, during the years 2007 and 2008; the CD4 values were obtained from 42 patients. The samples were analyzed by separate PCRs to identify Encephalitozoon intestinalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi. Microsporidia species showed a 36% prevalence: ten patients had Encephalitozoon intestinalis, four Enterocytozoon bieneusi and four both species. An inverse and statistically significant relationship between the CD4 count and the presence of microsporidia in the fecal sample was also found. It is remarkable the high prevalence of microsporidia species observed in the HIV patients studied, with a predominance of E. intestinalis.

Prevalencia de Encephalitozoon intestinalis y Enterocytozoon bieneusi en pacientes VIH positivos de Maracaibo, Venezuela / Prevalence of Encephalitozoon intestinalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in HIV positive patients to Maracaibo, Venezuela

Los microsporidios pueden provocar infecciones emergentes y oportunistas en individuos inmunocomprometidos de todo el mundo. Se realizó éste estudio para identificar las especies de microsporidios intestinales presentes en pacientes con VIH-SIDA del Servicio Autónomo Hospital Universitario de Maracaibo (SAHUM). Se recolectaron 50 muestras fecales de individuos con diagnóstico confirmado de VIH durante los años 2007-2008; se obtuvieron las cifras de CD4 de solo 42 pacientes. Las muestras se analizaron mediante PCR separadas para la identificación de Encephalitozoon intestinalis y Enterocytozoon bieneusi. Las especies de microsporidios presentaron un 36% de prevalencia, 10 pacientes presentaron Encephalitozoon intestinalis, 4 Enterocytozoon bieneusi y 4 ambas especies. Se determinó una relación inversamente proporcional y estadísticamente significativa entre el contaje de CD4 y la presencia de microsporidios en la muestra fecal. Es destacable la elevada prevalencia de especies de microsporidios observada en los pacientes VIH estudiados, donde predominó E. intestinalis.

Microsporidioses are considered emerging and opportunistic infections in immunocompromised individuals worldwide. The purpose of this study was to identify the species of intestinal microsporidia in patients with HIV-AIDS from the Servicio Autónomo Hospital Universitario de Maracaibo, Venezuela (SAHUM). Fecal samples were collected from 50 patients with confirmed diagnosis of HIV, during the years 2007 and 2008; the CD4 values were obtained from 42 patients. The samples were analyzed by separate PCRs to identify Encephalitozoon intestinalis and Enterocytozoon bieneusi. Microsporidia species showed a 36% prevalence: ten patients had Encephalitozoon intestinalis, four Enterocytozoon bieneusi and four both species. An inverse and statistically significant relationship between the CD4 count and the presence of microsporidia in the fecal sample was also found. It is remarkable the high prevalence of microsporidia species observed in the HIV patients studied, with a predominance of E. intestinalis.

HIV-associated wasting.

HIV-associated wasting continues to be a problem, particularly in individuals who use drugs and have food insecurity, high viral loads, and low-income levels. There is some evidence to suggest that nutrition counseling with or without oral nutritional supplements, anabolic/androgenic agents, and aerobic exercise with or without resistive exercise are likely to be effective in combating HIV-associated wasting. Limited or no evidence exists for the efficacy of herbal supplements, appetite stimulants, macronutrient and micronutrient supplements, and cytokine modulators for wasting in HIV-infected individuals. Most studies reviewed were of uneven quality, and few looked at significant endpoints such as disease progression and mortality.

Declining incidence of AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses: results from 16 years of population-based AIDS surveillance.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the incidence and risk factors of AIDS-defining opportunistic illnesses (AOIs) in the pre-highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) (1993-1995), early-HAART (1996-2000), and late-HAART (2001-2008) periods. DESIGN: Prospective cohort analysis of AIDS surveillance data. METHODS: Individuals living with, or diagnosed with AIDS from 1993 through 2008 were included. Poisson regression models were used to estimate annual incidence rates of the eight most frequently occurring AOIs, and to compare these rates in the pre-HAART (1993-1995), early-HAART (1996-2000), and late-HAART (2001-2008) periods. RESULTS: There were 18 733 individuals with AIDS included; 5788 were diagnosed prior to 1993 and 12 945 were diagnosed between 1 January 1993 and 31 December 2008. The incidence rates of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, wasting syndrome, Kaposi's sarcoma, HIV encephalopathy, cytomegalovirus retinitis, cytomegalovirus, and esophageal candidiasis decreased during the study period, with the largest declines observed between the pre-HAART and early-HAART periods. Incidence rates also decreased between the early-HAART and late-HAART periods, though not as sharply. Incidence rate reductions between the earliest and latest period ranged from 84 to 99%. CONCLUSIONS: Steep declines in incidence of AOIs were found following the introduction of HAART and continued into the late-HAART era. These declines reflect the impact of HIV diagnosis and treatment on a population level.

Vitamin D status and incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis, opportunistic infections, and wasting among HIV-infected Tanzanian adults initiating antiretroviral therapy.

BACKGROUND: Maintaining vitamin D sufficiency may decrease the incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis and other infectious diseases. We present the first prospective study of vitamin D among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults receiving antiretrovirals in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) level was assessed at antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation for 1103 HIV-infected adults enrolled in a trial of multivitamins (not including vitamin D) in Tanzania. Participants were prospectively followed at monthly visits at which trained physicians performed a clinical examination and nurses took anthropometric measurements and assessed self-reported symptoms. Cox proportional hazards models estimated hazard ratios (HRs) of morbidity outcomes. RESULTS: After multivariate adjustment, vitamin D deficiency (defined as a concentration of <20 ng/mL) had a significantly greater association with incident pulmonary tuberculosis, compared with vitamin D sufficiency (HR, 2.89; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.31-7.41; P = .027), but no association was found for vitamin D insufficiency (defined as a concentration of 20-30 ng/mL; P = .687). Deficiency was also significantly associated with incident oral thrush (HR, 1.96; 95% CI, 1.01-3.81; P = .046), wasting (HR, 3.10; 95% CI, 1.33-7.24; P = .009), and >10% weight loss (HR, 2.10; 95% CI, 1.13-3.91; P = .019). Wasting results were robust to exclusion of individuals experiencing pulmonary tuberculosis. Vitamin D status was not associated with incident malaria, pneumonia, or anemia. CONCLUSIONS: Vitamin D supplementation trials for adults receiving ART appear to be warranted.

Vitamin D status and its association with morbidity including wasting and opportunistic illnesses in HIV-infected women in Tanzania.

Vitamin D has a potential role in preventing HIV-related complications, based on its extensive involvement in immune and metabolic function, including preventing osteoporosis and premature cardiovascular disease. However, this association has not been examined in large studies or in resource-limited settings. Vitamin D levels were assessed in 884 HIV-infected pregnant women at enrollment in a trial of multivitamin supplementation (excluding vitamin D) in Tanzania. Information on HIV related complications was recorded during follow-up (median, 70 months). Proportional hazards models and generalized estimating equations were used to assess the relationship of vitamin D status with these outcomes. Women with low vitamin D status (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D<32 ng/mL) had 43% higher risk of reaching a body mass index (BMI) less than 18 kg/m(2) during the first 2 years of follow-up, compared to women with adequate vitamin D levels (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.43; 95% confidence intervals: [1.03-1.99]). The relationship between continuous vitamin D levels and risk of BMI less than 18 kg/m(2) during follow-up was inverse and linear (p=0.03). Women with low vitamin D levels had significantly higher incidence of acute upper respiratory infections (HR: 1.27 [1.04-1.54]) and thrush (HR: 2.74 [1.29-5.83]) diagnosed during the first 2 years of follow-up. Low vitamin D status was a significant risk factor for wasting and HIV-related complications such as thrush during follow-up in this prospective cohort in Tanzania. If these protective associations are confirmed in randomized trials, vitamin D supplementation could represent a simple and inexpensive method to improve health and quality of life of HIV-infected patients, particularly in resource-limited settings.

Nutritional aspects of HIV-associated wasting in sub-Saharan Africa.

The twin global epidemics of HIV infection and food scarcity disproportionately affect sub-Saharan Africa, and a significant proportion of patients who require antiretroviral therapy (ART) are malnourished because of a combination of HIV-associated wasting and inadequate nutrient intake. Protein-calorie malnutrition, the most common form of adult malnutrition in the region, is associated with significant morbidity and compounds the immunosuppressive effects of HIV. A low body mass index (BMI), a sign of advanced malnutrition, is an independent predictor of early mortality (<6 mo) after ART initiation in several analyses, and recent studies show an association between early weight gain when receiving ART and improved treatment outcomes. The cause of the observed increase in mortality is uncertain, but it is likely due in part to malnutrition-induced immune system dysfunction, a higher burden of opportunistic infections, and metabolic derangements. In this article, we describe the epidemiology of HIV infection and malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, potential causes of increased mortality after ART initiation among patients with a low BMI, recent studies on post-ART weight gain and treatment outcome, and trials of macronutrient supplementation from the region. We close by highlighting priority areas for future research.